Everything below concerns Oxidation. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-08-28. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
多数实验室与市售的 Semax 以冻干粉形式提供。冻干粉通常建议保存在 -20 °C 或更低温度下，同时避免光照与反复升温。短期运输有时采用冷藏条件，但长期保存仍以冷冻为主。分包操作应尽量减少开盖次数，以降低吸湿和微生物污染的风险。开封后若未一次用完，建议在干燥环境中密封并尽快放回低温储存。
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 常见于冻干制剂 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 在极性溶剂中一般也可溶 |
| 建议储存温度 | -20 °C | 冻干粉，避光密封 |
| 常见分析手段 | 反相高效液相色谱 | 常与质谱联用 |
| 主要降解路径 | 水解与氧化 | 溶液状态更显著 |
Identity and purity of semax are established with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet detection, usually at 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry, most often electrospray ionisation in positive mode, confirms the molecular mass and reveals truncated sequences. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion provide additional structural confirmation. Laboratories typically report purity as the percentage area of the main peak, a figure that does not capture isomeric or oxidised variants unless the method resolves them.
The peptide is prone to several degradation pathways. Oxidation of the methionine residue produces a sulfoxide that elutes close to the parent peak in many chromatographic systems. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds and deamidation of susceptible residues in related sequences also reduce purity over time. Lyophilised material kept dry at minus twenty degrees Celsius and shielded from light is the most stable form commonly described in laboratory practice.
Material sold for laboratory use varies widely in stated purity and documentation. A certificate of analysis should list the analytical method, the column and detector used, and the observed purity value. Independent verification by an outside laboratory is the practical way to confirm identity when documentation is absent or internally inconsistent. Regulatory status differs by country, and a product legal in one jurisdiction may be unapproved or controlled in another.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
Whereas MDA and psychedelics like psilocybin induce the head-twitch response in rodents, a behavioral proxy of psychedelic effects, findings on MDMA and the head-twitch response are mixed and conflicting. In addition, whereas MDA fully substitutes for psychedelics like LSD and DOM in rodent drug discrimination tests, MDMA does not do so, nor do psychedelics generally fully substitute for MDMA. Long-term repeated activation of serotonin 5-HT2B receptors by MDMA is thought to result in increased risk of organ complications such as valvular heart disease (VHD) and primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH). MDMA has been associated with serotonergic neurotoxicity. This may be due to formation of toxic MDMA metabolites and/or induction of simultaneous serotonin and dopamine release, with consequent uptake of dopamine into serotonergic neurons and breakdown into toxic species. Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists or serotonergic psychedelics may potentiate the neurotoxicity of MDMA. MDMA is a racemic mixture of two enantiomers, (S)-MDMA and (R)-MDMA. (S)-MDMA is much more potent as an SNDRA in vitro and in producing MDMA-like subjective effects in humans than (R)-MDMA. By contrast, (R)-MDMA acts as a lower-potency serotonin–norepinephrine releasing agent (SNRA) with weak or negligible effects on dopamine. Relatedly, (R)-MDMA shows weak or negligible stimulant-like and rewarding effects in animals. Both (S)-MDMA and (R)-MDMA produce entactogen-type effects in animals and humans. In addition, both (S)-MDMA and (R)-MDMA are weak agonists of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors.
=== PIDDosome === PIDD-CC serves as a nucleating agent for the assembly of a complex with the dual adaptor protein RAIDD, which plays a pivotal role in the recruitment and activation of CASP2, potentially triggering apoptotic pathways. This assembly is widely recognized as the PIDDosome. In contrast, signaling pathways involving PIDD-C are primarily linked to the activation of NF-κB, thereby enhancing cell survival. In response to DNA damage, PIDD-C undergoes translocation to the nucleus, where it forms a complex with RIP1 and the NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO, also known as IKBKG), collectively termed the NEMO-PIDDosome. The term "PIDDosome" is commonly used to refer to a multiprotein complex that is made up of p53-induced death domain protein 1 (PIDD1), the bipartite linker protein CRADD (also known as RAIDD), and the inactive precursor of the caspase family endopeptidase, called caspase-2.
== Scientific career before and during World War II == Cremer joined Otto Hahn at Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry to study radioactive trace compounds in 1937. She moved labs shortly after to concentrate on isotope separation. In 1938, Cremer received her habilitation from the University of Berlin. In any ordinary case, this qualification would lead to faculty positions; however, the Nazi government of the time had passed the Law on the Legal Position of Female Public Servants. The law banned women from senior positions (e.g. professorship) and required women to quit once married. Many women scientists and scholars were left unemployed or limited in career prospects. After World War II began and male scientists and professors were drafted, Cremer was able to obtain a position as a docent in 1940 at the University of Innsbruck in Austria. However, she was informed that she would leave her job once the war had ended and the men came home. Cremer was pleased with her new position and location because she was able to mountain climb, a hobby of hers.
As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern Iran. Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as Saltmen. Carbon-14 testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC. Later isotopic research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners. Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979. Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to the handover of the colony in 1997, and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover. The impending handover triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life. Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996. The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995. It extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule. The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule. Immediately after the handover, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak and a housing surplus. This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn. Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as a key moment in the PRC's rise to great power status.
=== United States === Cannabis tea is scheduled at the federal level in the United States by nature of being a derivative of Cannabis sativa, and it is therefore illegal to possess, buy, and sell. Due to variances in statewide laws, and the reluctance of the federal government to overrule the states, however, the federal legislation has little impact on nationwide use, and is "generally applied only against persons who possess, cultivate, or distribute large quantities of cannabis". As such, regulation of recreational and/or medicinal growth and use on an individual level is not the responsibility of the federal government.
Richard Dale Smith is a chemist and a Battelle Fellow and chief scientist within the biological sciences division, as well as the director of proteomics research at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). Smith is also director of the NIH Proteomics Research Resource for Integrative Biology, an adjunct faculty member in the chemistry departments at Washington State University and the University of Utah, and an affiliate faculty member at the University of Idaho and the Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University. He is the author or co-author of approximately 1100 peer-reviewed publications and has been awarded 70 US patents.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
一般不建议常温长期保存。多数说明指向 -20 °C 冷冻避光。常温运输通常被视为短期可接受，但会加快降解风险。
公开资料对此没有统一答案。普遍建议现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用完。含甲硫氨酸的序列更易氧化，放置时间越长风险越高。
反相高效液相色谱是最常用的手段，配合质谱确认分子量。氨基酸组成分析和肽图分析可补充序列层面的验证。
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.